Research
What the Latest Studies Say About Ashwagandha and Cortisol
A look at recent clinical trials measuring ashwagandha's effects on stress hormones, sleep quality, and anxiety.
We research, compare, and rank the most popular supplements across dozens of categories so you can make smarter decisions about what you put in your body.
KSM-66 vs. Sensoril vs. full-spectrum — which extract actually delivers.
See the rankings →Nitrate content varies wildly. We compared the most popular powders and capsules.
See the rankings →Strain diversity, delivery mechanism, and shelf stability all matter.
See the rankings →D3 with K2 for absorption, proper dosing, and clean fillers.
See the rankings →Glycinate, threonate, citrate — the form matters more than the dose.
See the rankings →Methylated vs. synthetic forms, proper ratios, and bioavailability.
See the rankings →One of the most nutrient-dense superfoods, but sourcing quality varies.
See the rankings →Ubiquinol vs. ubiquinone, absorption tech, and dosing for heart health.
See the rankings →A look at recent clinical trials measuring ashwagandha's effects on stress hormones, sleep quality, and anxiety.
The supplement aisle is packed with probiotics making big promises. Here's what to look for on the label.
Proposed changes could require supplement companies to disclose third-party testing results and ingredient sourcing.
Dietary nitrates from beetroot have been studied extensively for cardiovascular benefits.
Both are marketed as nutrient-dense superfoods, but they serve very different purposes.
Glycinate, citrate, threonate, oxide — there are a dozen forms. Here's which one is right for you.
We tested and compared 18 beetroot supplements, evaluating each for nitrate content per serving, sourcing transparency, third-party testing, taste, and value. Nitrate concentration is the single most important factor — it's what drives the blood pressure benefits supported by clinical research.
Nitrate content was weighted most heavily (40%), followed by third-party testing (25%), value (20%), and taste/convenience (15%). All products were evaluated using the same criteria. Rankings are updated when formulations change or new products enter the market.
We evaluated 24 probiotic supplements on strain specificity, CFU count at expiration, delivery mechanism, clinical evidence, third-party testing, and value. The best probiotics use clinically studied strains at doses that match the research.
Strain specificity and clinical evidence were weighted most heavily (35%), followed by delivery mechanism (20%), third-party testing (20%), CFU accuracy at expiration (15%), and value (10%).
We compared 22 vitamin D3 supplements on dosage accuracy, form (D3 vs D2), inclusion of vitamin K2 for calcium absorption, third-party testing, filler quality, and value. An estimated 42% of U.S. adults are vitamin D deficient — making this one of the most universally beneficial supplements.
D3 form and dosage accuracy (25%), K2 inclusion (20%), third-party testing (20%), carrier oil quality (15%), filler cleanliness (10%), and value (10%). We strongly favor D3+K2 combos and penalize products using D2 (ergocalciferol), which is less effective at raising blood levels.
We evaluated 20 ashwagandha supplements on extract type, withanolide concentration, clinical backing, third-party testing, fillers, and value. The extract standardization is everything — generic root powder is not the same as a clinically studied extract.
Extract quality and withanolide standardization (35%), third-party testing (25%), clinical dose accuracy (20%), filler cleanliness (10%), and value (10%). KSM-66 and Sensoril extracts were strongly preferred due to their published clinical trial data.
We tested 19 magnesium supplements across the most common forms — glycinate, threonate, citrate, taurate, and oxide. The form of magnesium is the single biggest factor in whether supplementation works, because absorption rates vary from 4% (oxide) to over 80% (glycinate).
Magnesium form and bioavailability (35%), elemental magnesium per serving (20%), third-party testing (20%), filler quality (15%), and value (10%). We strongly penalized products using magnesium oxide as the primary source.
We compared 16 B-complex supplements on form quality (methylated vs. synthetic), dosing ratios, bioavailability, third-party testing, and value. The #1 factor: whether the product uses active, methylated B-vitamins or cheap synthetic forms that up to 40% of people can't properly convert.
Vitamin form quality — methylated vs. synthetic (35%), dosing accuracy and ratio balance (20%), third-party testing (20%), filler and allergen profile (15%), and value (10%).
We evaluated 14 moringa supplements on sourcing origin, organic certification, nutrient density testing, heavy metal screening, processing method, and value. Moringa quality varies enormously depending on where it's grown and how it's dried — heat exposure destroys key nutrients.
Sourcing origin and processing method (30%), organic certification and testing (25%), nutrient density verification (20%), heavy metal screening (15%), and value (10%).
We evaluated 17 CoQ10 supplements on the critical distinction between ubiquinol and ubiquinone, absorption technology, dosing, third-party testing, and value. CoQ10 is fat-soluble and notoriously hard to absorb — the delivery system matters as much as the dose.
CoQ10 form — ubiquinol vs. ubiquinone (30%), absorption technology (25%), third-party testing (20%), dose per serving (15%), and value (10%). Ubiquinol products were strongly favored, especially for users over 40 or those on statin medications.
Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) has become one of the most popular adaptogens on the market. But behind the marketing claims, what does the clinical research actually show about its effects on cortisol and stress?
Cortisol is the body's primary stress hormone. Chronically elevated cortisol is linked to poor sleep, weight gain, anxiety, and impaired immune function. The central promise of ashwagandha supplementation is that it can meaningfully lower cortisol levels — and the evidence is surprisingly strong.
A 2019 double-blind, placebo-controlled trial found that participants taking 240mg of ashwagandha extract daily showed a 23% reduction in morning cortisol compared to placebo over 60 days. Participants also reported significant improvements in sleep quality.
Across multiple randomized controlled trials, two ashwagandha extracts consistently perform well: KSM-66 and Sensoril. Both are standardized to specific concentrations of withanolides — the active compounds responsible for ashwagandha's effects.
Most studies are relatively small (60–120 participants) and short-term (8–12 weeks). Long-term safety data beyond 12 months is sparse. Potential interactions with thyroid medications, immunosuppressants, and sedatives aren't widely discussed.
Ashwagandha has stronger clinical evidence than most adaptogens. For stress and cortisol management, the data is encouraging — but keep expectations realistic. It works best alongside proper sleep, exercise, and stress management.
The probiotic market is flooded with products promising everything from better digestion to clearer skin. Most claims are exaggerated. But some probiotics do have solid evidence — if you know what to look for.
For general gut health, 10–20 billion CFUs is typically sufficient. Products advertising 100+ billion CFUs are usually unnecessary and can cause discomfort.
Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG is well-studied for antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Saccharomyces boulardii for traveler's diarrhea. Generic "Lactobacillus blend" labels without strain codes are a red flag.
Stomach acid kills most bacteria. Look for delayed-release capsules, enteric coating, or spore-based formulas that survive the journey. Gummies and loose powders have the worst survival rates.
Look for products tested by USP, NSF, or ConsumerLab. This verifies what's on the label is in the bottle — and that it's free from contaminants.
Some probiotics need refrigeration; others are shelf-stable. If a product requires refrigeration and has been sitting on a non-refrigerated shelf, those bacteria may already be dead.
The best probiotic has clinically studied strains for your specific concern, adequate CFUs at expiration, a delivery system that reaches the gut, and third-party verification. Everything else is marketing.
The FDA has proposed new labeling rules targeting transparency around testing, sourcing, and health claims for supplement companies.
Levels the playing field for honest brands
Helps consumers make informed choices
Reduces misleading proprietary blends
Increases costs for small manufacturers
May expose proprietary formulations
Enforcement logistics are unclear
The public comment period runs through April 2026. If finalized, brands have 18 months to comply. This could reshape the supplement industry — especially for companies relying on vague labels.
Beetroot is one of the few supplements with genuinely robust clinical evidence for lowering blood pressure. The mechanism is well understood, the studies are large, and the effect sizes are clinically meaningful.
Beetroot is rich in inorganic nitrates. Bacteria on the tongue convert nitrate to nitrite, which becomes nitric oxide (NO) in the bloodstream. NO relaxes blood vessel walls, widening them and reducing pressure.
A meta-analysis of 22 RCTs found beetroot juice reduced systolic BP by 3.55 mmHg and diastolic by 1.32 mmHg. Effects were more pronounced in studies lasting 14+ days.
A 3–5 mmHg systolic reduction is associated with a 10% decrease in cardiovascular events at a population level. For stage 1 hypertension, this can mean the difference between medication and lifestyle management.
Beetroot is one of the most evidence-backed supplements for blood pressure. The mechanism is clear, the studies are solid, and the effect sizes are clinically relevant. Worth discussing with your doctor if you have mildly elevated BP.
Moringa and spirulina are two of the most hyped "superfoods" in supplements. Both are nutrient-dense and both are marketed as cure-alls — but they're fundamentally different products.
Moringa oleifera leaves contain vitamins A, C, E, calcium, potassium, iron, and all nine essential amino acids. Its primary value is as a whole-food multivitamin.
Spirulina is 60–70% protein by weight, rich in B-vitamins, iron, and phycocyanin. It has more clinical research than moringa, with studies showing benefits for cholesterol, blood sugar, and allergies.
Broader vitamin/mineral profile
Higher vitamin C and calcium
Milder taste, easier to mix
Much higher protein content
More clinical evidence
Better for cholesterol support
Spirulina can absorb heavy metals from its water — always choose products with third-party testing. Moringa quality varies by sourcing; Indian and African-grown tends to have higher nutrient density.
For broad-spectrum nutrients and dietary gaps: moringa. For protein with clinical evidence for cholesterol and blood sugar: spirulina. Taking both is fine — they complement each other well.
Magnesium is involved in over 300 enzymatic processes, yet ~50% of Americans don't get enough. Supplementation makes sense — but choosing the right form is where most people go wrong.
The carrier molecule dramatically affects both absorption and which benefits you'll experience:
RDA is 310–420mg/day. Most people get ~250mg from diet, leaving a 100–200mg gap. Taking 200–400mg of a well-absorbed form is a reasonable target.
Sleep & relaxation: Glycinate. Brain & memory: L-Threonate. Constipation: Citrate. Heart health: Taurate. Avoid: Oxide (poor absorption).
Vitamin D deficiency is one of the most common nutritional gaps in the developed world. An estimated 42% of American adults have insufficient levels, and that number climbs above 70% for adults over 65. Yet the "recommended" dosage printed on most supplement bottles — 600 to 800 IU per day — is a number that many researchers and clinicians now consider far too low.
So how much do you actually need? The answer depends on where you live, how much sun exposure you get, your body weight, your skin tone, and your baseline blood levels. Here's what the clinical evidence says.
The current Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of 600 IU/day for adults under 70 was set by the Institute of Medicine in 2011. This number was designed to prevent severe deficiency (rickets in children, osteomalacia in adults), not to achieve optimal blood levels for overall health.
Most integrative and functional medicine practitioners recommend maintaining serum 25(OH)D levels between 40–60 ng/mL. Reaching and sustaining that range typically requires 2,000–5,000 IU per day for the average adult — significantly more than the RDA suggests.
Latitude and sun exposure: If you live above the 37th parallel (roughly north of San Francisco or Richmond, VA), your skin produces virtually no vitamin D from sunlight between October and March. People who work indoors, wear sunscreen, or cover most of their skin need more supplementation year-round.
Body weight: Vitamin D is fat-soluble and gets sequestered in adipose tissue. Research shows that individuals with a BMI over 30 often need 2–3x the dose of normal-weight adults to achieve the same blood levels.
Skin tone: Melanin reduces the skin's ability to produce D3 from UV exposure. Studies consistently find that Black Americans have significantly lower serum vitamin D than white Americans at the same latitude and sun exposure levels.
Age: The skin's ability to synthesize vitamin D declines with age. Adults over 65 produce roughly 25% as much vitamin D from sun exposure as a 20-year-old.
Always choose D3 (cholecalciferol), not D2 (ergocalciferol). D3 is the form your skin naturally produces and is substantially more effective at raising and maintaining serum levels. Multiple head-to-head studies show D3 raises blood levels 70–80% more effectively than the same dose of D2.
Most high-quality supplements now use D3 exclusively. If your supplement label says "ergocalciferol" or just "vitamin D" without specifying D3, consider switching.
Vitamin D increases calcium absorption. Vitamin K2 (specifically MK-7) directs that calcium into bones and teeth rather than letting it deposit in arteries and soft tissues. Taking D3 without adequate K2 may lead to arterial calcification over time, especially at higher doses.
This is why most clinicians and the better supplement brands now pair D3 with K2. A typical effective ratio is 5,000 IU D3 with 100–200 mcg MK-7.
Vitamin D toxicity is real but rare, and almost never occurs below 10,000 IU/day taken for extended periods. The Endocrine Society's safe upper limit is 10,000 IU/day for adults. Toxicity symptoms include nausea, excessive thirst, kidney stones, and dangerously elevated blood calcium.
That said, there's no good reason for most people to exceed 5,000 IU/day without blood testing. The smart approach is to test your 25(OH)D levels, supplement to reach the 40–60 ng/mL range, then find your maintenance dose.
Most adults need 2,000–5,000 IU of vitamin D3 daily to maintain optimal blood levels — well above the outdated RDA of 600 IU. Pair it with K2 (MK-7), take it with a fat-containing meal for absorption, and get your levels tested at least once a year. It's one of the simplest, most well-supported steps you can take for long-term health.
Magnesium is involved in over 300 enzymatic reactions in your body. It regulates muscle and nerve function, blood sugar, blood pressure, and the production of protein, bone, and DNA. An estimated 50% of Americans don't consume enough of it. And yet, the vast majority of magnesium supplements sitting on store shelves are essentially useless.
The reason comes down to one thing: the form of magnesium inside the capsule.
Not all magnesium is created equal. The elemental magnesium in a supplement is always bound to another molecule — an oxide, a citrate, a glycinate, etc. That "carrier" molecule determines how well your body actually absorbs the magnesium. The difference is enormous.
Magnesium oxide, the most common form in cheap supplements, has a bioavailability of roughly 4%. That means if you take a 500mg magnesium oxide capsule, your body absorbs about 20mg of usable magnesium. The rest passes straight through your digestive system — which is why magnesium oxide is more accurately described as a laxative than a mineral supplement.
Compare that to magnesium glycinate at roughly 80% absorption, or magnesium citrate at around 25–30%. The form matters far more than the dose printed on the label.
Magnesium Glycinate (Bisglycinate): The gold standard for general supplementation. The magnesium is chelated (bonded) to glycine, an amino acid with its own calming properties. Absorption rates around 80%. Extremely gentle on the stomach, no laxative effect. Best for sleep, anxiety, muscle recovery, and overall deficiency correction.
Magnesium L-Threonate: The only form clinically shown to cross the blood-brain barrier and increase brain magnesium concentrations. Developed by MIT researchers. Smaller studies show improvements in working memory and cognitive function. Lower elemental magnesium per dose, so it's primarily used for brain health rather than correcting systemic deficiency.
Magnesium Citrate: Moderate absorption (~25–30%), widely available, affordable. Mild laxative effect makes it a good choice for people who also deal with constipation. Not ideal if you have a sensitive stomach or loose stools.
Magnesium Taurate: Bound to taurine, an amino acid with cardiovascular benefits. Emerging research suggests particular benefit for blood pressure and heart rhythm. Well-absorbed, gentle on digestion.
Magnesium Oxide: ~4% absorption. Found in most drugstore brands because it's extremely cheap to manufacture. Unless you're specifically looking for a laxative, there's no reason to take this form.
Magnesium Sulfate (Epsom Salt): Fine for soaking in a bath, but poorly absorbed orally and can cause significant GI distress.
Magnesium Carbonate: Only becomes bioavailable after reacting with stomach acid. Absorption is inconsistent and modest at best. Sometimes causes bloating and gas.
Two numbers matter on any magnesium supplement label: the total compound weight and the elemental magnesium. A capsule might contain 500mg of magnesium glycinate, but only 100mg of that is actual elemental magnesium — the rest is the glycine carrier. That 100mg of elemental magnesium at 80% absorption delivers about 80mg to your body.
A quality brand will list both the compound weight and the elemental magnesium. If a label only shows one number and doesn't specify which, that's a red flag.
The RDA for magnesium is 310–320mg/day for women and 400–420mg/day for men. Most Americans get about 250mg from diet. That leaves a gap of roughly 100–200mg that supplementation can fill.
For a well-absorbed form like glycinate, 200–400mg of elemental magnesium per day is a reasonable target. Start low (100–200mg) and increase over a week to assess tolerance.
Take magnesium with food for best absorption. If you're using it for sleep, take it 30–60 minutes before bed. If you're using citrate and want to avoid nighttime GI effects, take it in the morning.
The most popular magnesium supplements use the cheapest, worst-absorbed form — oxide. If you've tried magnesium and felt nothing, the form was almost certainly the problem, not the mineral. Switch to glycinate for general use, threonate for cognitive support, or citrate if you also need digestive regularity. The right form at the right dose is a game-changer. See our Best Magnesium Supplements ranking for specific product recommendations.
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